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Ideas from 'Problems of Philosophy' by Bertrand Russell [1912], by Theme Structure

[found in 'The Problems of Philosophy' by Russell,Bertrand [OUP 1995,0-19-888018-9]].

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1. Philosophy / D. Nature of Philosophy / 1. Philosophy
5361 Philosophers must get used to absurdities
1. Philosophy / D. Nature of Philosophy / 3. Philosophy Defined
5368 Philosophy verifies that our hierarchy of instinctive beliefs is harmonious and consistent
1. Philosophy / E. Nature of Metaphysics / 2. Possibility of Metaphysics
5432 Metaphysics cannot give knowledge of the universe as a whole
1. Philosophy / G. Scientific Philosophy / 3. Scientism
5434 Philosophy is similar to science, and has no special source of wisdom
2. Reason / B. Laws of Thought / 1. Laws of Thought
5405 The law of contradiction is not a 'law of thought', but a belief about things
5396 Three Laws of Thought: identity, contradiction, and excluded middle
3. Truth / A. Truth Problems / 1. Truth
5420 Truth is a property of a belief, but dependent on its external relations, not its internal qualities
3. Truth / A. Truth Problems / 5. Truth Bearers
5419 Truth and falsehood are properties of beliefs and statements
3. Truth / A. Truth Problems / 7. Falsehood
5417 A good theory of truth must make falsehood possible
3. Truth / C. Correspondence Truth / 1. Correspondence Truth
7395 Truth as congruence may work for complex beliefs, but not for simple beliefs about existence [Joslin]
5428 Beliefs are true if they have corresponding facts, and false if they don't
3. Truth / D. Coherence Truth / 1. Coherence Truth
5421 The coherence theory says falsehood is failure to cohere, and truth is fitting into a complete system of Truth
3. Truth / D. Coherence Truth / 2. Coherence Truth Critique
5422 More than one coherent body of beliefs seems possible
5424 Coherence is not the meaning of truth, but an important test for truth
5423 If we suspend the law of contradiction, nothing will appear to be incoherent
4. Formal Logic / A. Syllogistic Logic / 2. Syllogistic Logic
5401 The mortality of Socrates is more certain from induction than it is from deduction
5. Theory of Logic / B. Logical Consequence / 5. Modus Ponens
5395 Demonstration always relies on the rule that anything implied by a truth is true
5. Theory of Logic / F. Referring in Logic / 1. Naming / b. Names as descriptive
5386 Proper names are really descriptions, and can be replaced by a description in a person's mind
5. Theory of Logic / F. Referring in Logic / 2. Descriptions / b. Definite descriptions
5385 The phrase 'a so-and-so' is an 'ambiguous' description'; 'the so-and-so' (singular) is a 'definite' description
6. Mathematics / C. Sources of Mathematics / 4. Mathematical Empiricism / c. Against mathematical empiricism
5399 Maths is not known by induction, because further instances are not needed to support it
7. Existence / D. Theories of Reality / 3. Reality
5370 Space is neutral between touch and sight, so it cannot really be either of them
7. Existence / D. Theories of Reality / 8. Facts / c. Facts and truths
5418 In a world of mere matter there might be 'facts', but no truths
8. Modes of Existence / A. Relations / 1. Nature of Relations
5371 Because we depend on correspondence, we know relations better than we know the items that relate
5407 That Edinburgh is north of London is a non-mental fact, so relations are independent universals
8. Modes of Existence / D. Universals / 1. Universals
4428 Propositions express relations (prepositions and verbs) as well as properties (nouns and adjectives)
5406 Confused views of reality result from thinking that only nouns and adjectives represent universals
4479 All universals are like the relation "is north of", in having no physical location at all [Loux]
5383 Every complete sentence must contain at least one word (a verb) which stands for a universal
8. Modes of Existence / D. Universals / 2. Need for Universals
4427 Every sentence contains at least one word denoting a universal, so we need universals to know truth
4030 Russell claims that universals are needed to explain a priori knowledge (as their relations) [Mellor/Oliver]
8. Modes of Existence / D. Universals / 4. Uninstantiated Universals
5409 Normal existence is in time, so we must say that universals 'subsist'
8. Modes of Existence / D. Universals / 5. Universals as Concepts
5408 If we identify whiteness with a thought, we can never think of it twice; whiteness is the object of a thought
8. Modes of Existence / E. Nominalism / 2. Resemblance Nominalism
4441 'Resemblance Nominalism' won't work, because the theory treats resemblance itself as a universal
8. Modes of Existence / E. Nominalism / 4. Concept Nominalism
4429 If we consider whiteness to be merely a mental 'idea', we rob it of its universality
10. Modality / E. Possible worlds / 1. Possible Worlds / a. Possible worlds
5400 In any possible world we feel that two and two would be four
11. Knowledge Aims / A. Knowledge / 1. Knowledge
5431 Knowledge cannot be precisely defined, as it merges into 'probable opinion'
11. Knowledge Aims / A. Knowledge / 4. Belief / b. Elements of beliefs
5426 Belief relates a mind to several things other than itself
11. Knowledge Aims / A. Knowledge / 4. Belief / d. Cause of beliefs
5366 We have an 'instinctive' belief in the external world, prior to all reflection
11. Knowledge Aims / B. Certain Knowledge / 4. The Cogito
5359 Descartes showed that subjective things are the most certain
11. Knowledge Aims / C. Knowing Reality / 1. Perceptual Realism / b. Direct realism
5377 'Acquaintance' is direct awareness, without inferences or judgements
11. Knowledge Aims / C. Knowing Reality / 1. Perceptual Realism / c. Representative realism
6510 Russell (1912) said phenomena only resemble reality in abstract structure [Robinson,H]
5372 There is no reason to think that objects have colours
11. Knowledge Aims / C. Knowing Reality / 3. Idealism / a. Idealism
5373 'Idealism' says that everything which exists is in some sense mental
11. Knowledge Aims / C. Knowing Reality / 4. Solipsism
5362 It is not illogical to think that only myself and my mental events exist
12. Knowledge Sources / A. A Priori Knowledge / 2. Self-Evidence
5412 Some propositions are self-evident, but their implications may also be self-evident
5413 Particular instances are more clearly self-evident than any general principles
5415 As shown by memory, self-evidence comes in degrees
5416 If self-evidence has degrees, we should accept the more self-evident as correct
12. Knowledge Sources / A. A Priori Knowledge / 4. A Priori as Necessities
5397 The rationalists were right, because we know logical principles without experience
12. Knowledge Sources / A. A Priori Knowledge / 9. A Priori from Concepts
4430 All a priori knowledge deals with the relations of universals
5411 We can know some general propositions by universals, when no instance can be given
12. Knowledge Sources / B. Perception / 3. Representation
6514 Russell's representationalism says primary qualities only show the structure of reality [Robinson,H]
12. Knowledge Sources / B. Perception / 4. Sense Data / a. Sense-data theory
6415 After 1912, Russell said sense-data are last in analysis, not first in experience [Grayling]
5358 'Sense-data' are what are immediately known in sensation, such as colours or roughnesses
12. Knowledge Sources / D. Empiricism / 1. Empiricism
7290 If Russell rejects innate ideas and direct a priori knowledge, he is left with a tabula rasa [Thompson]
5357 It is natural to begin from experience, and presumably that is the basis of knowledge
5389 Knowledge by descriptions enables us to transcend private experience
5382 We are acquainted with outer and inner sensation, memory, Self, and universals [PG]
12. Knowledge Sources / D. Empiricism / 5. Empiricism Critique
5376 I can know the existence of something with which nobody is acquainted
12. Knowledge Sources / E. Direct Knowledge / 4. Memory
5414 Images are not memory, because they are present, and memories are of the past
13. Knowledge Criteria / A. Justification Problems / 2. Justification Challenges / b. Gettier problem
5429 True belief is not knowledge when it is deduced from false belief
5430 A true belief is not knowledge if it is reached by bad reasoning
13. Knowledge Criteria / B. Internal Justification / 4. Foundationalism / c. Empirical foundations
5378 All knowledge (of things and of truths) rests on the foundations of acquaintance
13. Knowledge Criteria / D. Scepticism / 5. Dream Scepticism
5365 Dreams can be explained fairly scientifically if we assume a physical world
14. Science / B. Scientific Theories / 2. Aim of Science
5391 Science aims to find uniformities to which (within the limits of experience) there are no exceptions
14. Science / C. Induction / 3. Limits of Induction
5394 We can't prove induction from experience without begging the question
5390 Chickens are not very good at induction, and are surprised when their feeder wrings their neck
5392 It doesn't follow that because the future has always resembled the past, that it always will
14. Science / D. Explanation / 3. Best Explanation / a. Best explanation
5363 If the cat reappears in a new position, presumably it has passed through the intermediate positions
5367 Belief in real objects makes our account of experience simpler and more systematic
15. Nature of Minds / A. Nature of Mind / 4. Other Minds / c. Knowing other minds
5364 It is hard not to believe that speaking humans are expressing thoughts, just as we do ourselves
15. Nature of Minds / A. Nature of Mind / 4. Other Minds / d. Other minds by analogy
5379 If we didn't know our own minds by introspection, we couldn't know that other people have minds
15. Nature of Minds / C. Capacities of Minds / 7. Seeing Resemblance
5410 I learn the universal 'resemblance' by seeing two shades of green, and their contrast with red
16. Persons / B. Nature of the Self / 6. Self as Higher Awareness
5381 In seeing the sun, we are acquainted with our self, but not as a permanent person
16. Persons / C. Self-Awareness / 3. Limits of Introspection
5380 In perceiving the sun, I am aware of sun sense-data, and of the perceiver of the data
18. Thought / A. Modes of Thought / 5. Rationality / a. Rationality
5369 It is rational to believe in reality, despite the lack of demonstrative reasons for it
18. Thought / A. Modes of Thought / 6. Judgement / a. Nature of Judgement
5375 Knowledge of truths applies to judgements; knowledge by acquaintance applies to sensations and things
21711 Russell's 'multiple relations' theory says beliefs attach to ingredients, not to propositions [Linsky,B]
5427 Truth is when a mental state corresponds to a complex unity of external constituents
18. Thought / A. Modes of Thought / 6. Judgement / b. Error
5425 In order to explain falsehood, a belief must involve several terms, not two
18. Thought / D. Concepts / 1. Concepts / a. Nature of concepts
5384 A universal of which we are aware is called a 'concept'
19. Language / A. Nature of Meaning / 5. Meaning as Verification
13468 Russell started philosophy of language, by declaring some plausible sentences to be meaningless [Hart,WD]
5388 Every understood proposition is composed of constituents with which we are acquainted
19. Language / B. Reference / 4. Descriptive Reference / b. Reference by description
5387 It is pure chance which descriptions in a person's mind make a name apply to an individual
19. Language / D. Propositions / 6. Propositions Critique
21724 The main aim of the multiple relations theory of judgement was to dispense with propositions [Linsky,B]
23. Ethics / E. Utilitarianism / 2. Ideal of Pleasure
5398 Judgements of usefulness depend on judgements of value
26. Natural Theory / D. Laws of Nature / 11. Against Laws of Nature
5393 We can't know that our laws are exceptionless, or even that there are any laws